Makalah Bahasa Inggris English Teaching Development "TEACHING SECONDARY ENGLISH WITH ICT"

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A.  Background

The role of ICT, in the curriculum is much more than simply a passing trend. It provides a real opportunity for teachers of all phases and subjects to rethink fundamental pedagogical issues alongside the approaches to learning that pupils need to apply in classrooms. In this way it foregrounds the ways in which teachers can match in school the opportunities for learning provided in the home and community. The series is firmly rooted in practice and also explores the theoretical underpinning of the ways in which curriculum content and skills can be developed by the effective integration of ICT in schooling. It addresses the educational needs of the early years, the primary phase and secondary subject areas. The books are appropriate for preservice teacher training and continuing professional development, as well as for those pursuing higher degrees in education.

B.  Problem Formulation

1.       What is relationship between Computers, Literacy And Thinking Together?

2.        How many poin about Computers, Literacy And Thinking Together?

3.        What can technology do for/to English

C.  Destination

1.        To complete on of test  linguistic lesson

2.        To know how ITC used in teaching secondary scool process

CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

A.  Computers, Literacy And Thinking Together

In this chapter we begin by presenting a particular, socio-cultural perspective on the use of computers in relation to the English curriculum. A socio-cultural perspective on education is one which gives particular attention to the roles of language and other ‘cultural tools’ (Vygotsky 1987) for enabling the development of each new generation. Language is not merely a tool for providing information or facilitating social interaction, it is a tool for collective sense making. It does not merely enable us to interact, it enables us to link minds – to ‘interthink’ (Mercer 2000). In our view, this conception of language as a tool for thinking together has considerable educational potential, especially when coupled with the affordances of computer technology. The forms of language found in email, computer conferencing and ‘texting’ with mobile phones, reflect both the nature of the technologies and the communicative purposes to which people apply them. While technological and communicative developments have led to a reconsideration of what is meant by literacy (Rassool 1999; Pailliotet and Mosenthal 2000), it is worth noting that the creation of any digital text still requires a functional competence in written language. If ICT is used as a basis for interesting, meaningful and communicative activities, it can effectively stimulate children’s skills in using both spoken and written language.

As technology offers new ways of communicating, it is clear that schools must incorporate these ways into their social, communicative practices. On the other hand, fears are commonly expressed that the aim of enabling students to master the basics of oracy and literacy will be sacrificed to the use of the new technology. As we explain in this chapter, this is not the choice which needs to be made. Computer-based activities can be undertaken in ways which will increase opportunities for children to talk and work together, and develop their skills in both spoken and written language. Moreover, increased educational use of new technologies should not be seen as lessening the importance of dialogue between teachers and learners, though it may increase the range of possible contexts for those dialogues.

a.         The Ground Rules Of Educational Activity

Let us first focus on spoken language and how this is used in classroom activities. Back in the 1980s, Edwards and Mercer (1987) showed how the familiar patterns of classroom interaction depended on teachers and pupils following a set of implicit norms or ‘educational ground rules’. Drawing on the same concept of ‘educational ground rules’ in their study of writing in British secondary schools, Sheeran and Barnes (1991) showed how many of the expectations that teachers had about what constitutes a satisfactory essay, scientific report or other kind of written work, were never made explicit to pupils. And even when some of those requirements were made clear, teachers rarely discussed with pupils why they were expected to write (or talk) in particular ways. Sheeran and Barnes (1991: 2) therefore concluded: ‘In spite of their importance, these tacit expectations or ground rules, are seldom discussed with pupils because the teachers themselves are largely unaware of them.’ Bringing the ‘ground rules’ out into the open could have educational benefits, as Sheeran and Barnes suggested. This has been a basic principle of our own work with teachers in primary and secondary schools.

b.        Exploratory talk

Exploratory talk is that in which partners engage critically but constructively with each other’s ideas. Relevant information is offered for joint consideration. Proposals may be challenged and counterchallenged, but if so reasons are given and alternatives are offered. Agreement is sought as a basis for joint progress. Knowledge is made publicly accountable and reasoning is visible in the talk. (Mercer 2000: 98). exploratory talk represents the only mode of interaction which is appropriate in joint activity, but we are convinced that it deserves more attention in school, for two related reasons. The first is that it represents the kind of reasoned discussion that every child should be enabled toengage in. The second is that, despite it matching teachers’ own specifications of a ‘good discussion’, it is a rare phenomenon in most classrooms.

B.  Models Of Reading In The Secondary Classroom: Literature And Beyond

If the ‘e’ in e-learning can be said to stand for enhanced, the teaching of literature may be a good place to begin exploring the impact of ICT on the English classroom. Literature has long been the centre of the English classroom; an exploration of opportunities for an expansion of the strategies that underpin the teaching of literature and the traditional skills of literary analysis which accompany these, through an examination of current classroom practice using ICT will, it is hoped, contribute positively to the notion of enhancement. It is our contention that ICT changes both the construction of text and the act of reading. In this chapter, we want to propose that secondary classroom reading should be understood in three major ways in relation to ICT. These are not thought to be exclusive, but to perhaps contribute to the debates which have existed, and no doubt will continue to exist, about reading in the secondary English classroom First, we want to consider the ways in which ICT can be said to enhance the activity of reading what we might consider to be ‘classic texts’ – that is, those texts which make up the staple diet of many secondary English classrooms. Second, we want to consider the reading of electronic texts and the ways in which (and the extent to which) the text form,

Third, we want to consider how text and provisionality, for example the reading of wikipedias, have brought an additional dimension to the notion of reader-response theory – the demise of the concept of closure in relation to the construction of text and the ways in which this concept can enhance the notion of drafting written text

a)   Classic texts

What, then, are the features that our teaching colleagues consider warrant consideration of ICT in teaching literature? Simply asking where ICT can be said to reflect and extend some of the features we refer to above, is in itself helpful. Our colleague David Greenwood identifies the following as his reasons for using ICT to teach literature. Kinaesthetic learning, for example, is for David an essential feature of ICT use in English: It enables the use of a much greater range of effects, the use of varying type fonts, wide use of colour, the addition of sound and imported graphics, and kinetic effects for example. The potential of such effects has been shown to have a highly motivating effect on students, especially those who are more like

ly to think in terms of spatial rather than verbal models. He demonstrates too that, in his classroom, he considers group work is enhanced through the use of ICT: ICT enables group work. It is often difficult for more than two pupils to collaborate on a conventional poster; using word processing, groups of three or more are quite possible. The talk that goes on within the group about the text and the negotiation of the text mapping outcome, develops close attention to the text itself and its recreation in visual form. And in addressing the ways in which ICT can challenge ideas about meaning and text, David points out that: It moves the reader from the traditional practical criticism approach where ‘the words on the page’ are paramount, to the more modern reader-response where the text is something to be constructed in the mind of the reader or, in the case of group work, to be negotiated among a group of readers. For further ideas on this see Rosenblatt (1938) and Fish (1980), among others. The originals can easily be downloaded from the Internet for classroom use, saving the task of typing them in and enabling more time for discussion and creation.

b)            Thinking skills and mind mapping

Both thinking skills and mind mapping are familiar concepts in the English classroom. The examples which follow demonstrate how two teachers, Mary Martin and David Greenwood, have used ICT to enhance their own teaching of English through engagement with these approaches.

Thinking skills

Mary Martin, deputy head of Comberton Village College in Cambridgeshire, is well-known for her work on teaching poetry and thinking skills through ICT. Mary writes: Thinking skills in English are, to my mind, about constructing frameworks for thinking about text using agreed literary approaches. They are about identifying textual features, using analytical and critical language as you go, dissecting text through annotations and comment but using ICT to support that analysis in ways printed text cannot achieve.

Mind mapping

David Greenwood’s commitment to visual learning, illustrated by his choice of quotation above, is evident in his classroom through the use of a specific form of thinking skill: mind mapping. In the text which follows, David explores his own thinking through examples of mind mapping work from some of his students. A divergent, creative note-making and memory-assisting, thinking skill promoting strategy which combines images and keywords, connected first to ‘basic ordering ideas’ and then to additional branches, ‘mapping’ has most often been associated with (and been undertaken with) the ‘hands on’ use of coloured pens and paper, as opposed to computers, until recent years. However, with the ever increasing availability of easy to use drawing programs and with the development of ‘mapping’ software (for example, MindManager) exponents of ‘mapping’, such as Tony Buzan (Buzan and Buzan 2000) and Oliver Caviglioli (Caviglioli and Harris 2000) have been promoting ICT approaches. The example below illustrates how ICT can motivate students to explore and present their reactions to texts through this exploratory, summarizing and concentration-enhancing approach: it is, in the full original version, an intelligently colourful investigation of key features of Hardy’s Far From the Madding Crowd, from a ‘big picture’ perspective. The student concerned, very much enjoyed linking apposite quotations from the text with the characters’ names and other literary terms – all with simple but eye-catching graphics. Understanding that text is crafted and that all writers are readers of their own work and will produce several versions of that work, makes the realization that they too are ‘real writers’, and that re-reading and drafting are not a signal of failure, a revelation to many students. Entering into the writers’ guild via the recognition of provisionality is a gift which ICT can bestow. Drafting is of course much less arduous using ICT. This is one advantage. It is useful to ask students to track changes so that they are able to see the successive stages through which their own writing has progressed and to compare those with the drafts from writers, who were masters at their craft. The act of re-reading drafts of one’s own work is often a learning activity in itself. Once the concept of provisionality is established, activities such as prequels and plot/character/genre change have greater meaning. Knowing that the text will already have been subject to major change adds a reality factor to the classroom event.

C.  Technology For/To English?

For the most part, our reasons for using computers in schools tend to be based more on optimism than on experience, on some sense that so much capacity and potential must be capable of delivering more than we know about. As far as English teaching is concerned, certainly, there is no body of hard evidence that tells us with any precision when we should best use technology, or avoid it. Neither have we managed, in the absence of such evidence, to construct any kind of systematic theory that relates the capabilities of technology to the needs of English. Simply asserting that there are lots of purposes computers can serve in English does not really help.

All of us involved with English are prepared to articulate core concerns of the subject that are worth fighting to achieve and preserve, and in respect of these fundamentals it would seem reasonable to suggest that technology must either put up or shut up. What really matters in English? In what respects might technology improve how these things are achieved? It is up to those who care and know about the subject itself to work out the answers to these questions, rather than those trying to sell computers or e-learning or the knowledge economy to us. If we can build up a comprehensive theory of what technology can do for English, then we can make decisions about whether it is worth bothering with. In order to do that, we need to be very clear in the first place about what we actually do want English to do.

D.  New Media And Cultural Form: Narrative Versus Database

a)        Why narrative and database

Stories define how we think, how we play, even how we dream: they represent a basic way of organizing human experience. We understand our lives through stories. Barbara Hardy has argued famously, that narrative is ‘a primary act of mind transferred to art from life’ (Hardy 1977: 12). The act of the storyteller, the author, the novelist, says Hardy, arises from what we do all the time, in remembering, dreaming and planning. Narrative is so deeply ingrained as a cultural form that we take for granted the ways in which storytelling engages our interest, curiosity, fear, tensions, expectations and sense of order:

For we dream in narrative, daydream in narrative, remember, anticipate, hope, despair, believe, doubt, plan, revise, criticize, construct, gossip, learn, hate, and love by narrative. In order really to live, we make up stories about ourselves and others, about the personal as well as the social; past and future. (Hardy 1977: 13)

What is a database? Like narrative, a database represents a basic way of organizing human experience. A database can be a library, a museum, in fact any large collection of cultural data. In the age of the Internet, a database is a structured collection of data organized to maximize fast search and retrieval by computer. It represents a potentially powerful categorization system as it provides a range of options for sorting and viewing sets of data.

b)       Understanding narrative in the context of new media

Reconceiving narrative theory

In the context of new media, narrative manifested itself initially as electronic adventure games, then interactive fiction, followed soon after by hyperfiction. All these forms continue to exist, indeed, they are all flourishing in their present instantiations. Much has been written about the literary precursors to electronic narrative (Snyder 1996). Suffice it to say here that since the beginning of modern fiction, authors have attempted to cajole readers out of passivity. Literary precursors of interactive fiction and hyperfiction include not only Tristram Shandy and Ulysses, but also more recent fiction, such as Julio Cortazar’s Hopscotch (1966) and Borges’ Labyrinths (1970). All work strenuously against the medium in which their books are produced. In attacking the convention that a novel is a coherent narrative of events, such texts simultaneously invite and confirm reader interaction.

Electronic narratives also pose problems for traditional understandings of beginnings and endings. In traditional print narratives, beginnings imply endings and endings require some sort of formal and thematic closure. Literary convention decrees that endings must either satisfy or in some way respond to expectations raised during the reading of the narrative. Electronic narratives have taken a cautious approach to the problem of beginnings by offering readers a block of text labelled with something like ‘start here’, that combines the functions of title page, introduction and opening paragraph, perhaps reflecting the reluctance of some writers to disorientate readers at the point of their first contact with the narrative. By avoiding the corresponding devices for achieving closure, however, such electronic narratives may challenge readers. It is up to readers to decide how, when and why the narrative finishes. Of course, we are not naive about unresolved texts. Print and cinematic narratives provide instances of multiple closure and also a combination of closure linked to new beginnings. The fact that twentieth-century writers and film makers frequently offer their audience little in the way of closure indicates that, as readers and writers, we have long learnt to live and read more open-endedly than discussions of narrative form may lead us to believe. However, culturally familiar though we are with the absence or denial of closure, we may still find the consequences disturbing.

c)        Narrative and database: understanding the dynamics of their relationship

do databases and narratives have the same status in computer culture? Although some media objects follow a database logic in their structure, whereas others do not, in general, ‘creating a work in new media can be understood as the construction of an interface to a database’ (Manovich 2001: 226). Manovich gives some examples. In the simplest case, the interface simply provides access to the underlying database. For instance, an image database can be represented as a page of miniature images; clicking on a miniature will retrieve the corresponding record. If a database is too large to display all its records, a search engine can allow the user to search for particular records. But the interface can also translate the underlying database into a very different experience.

Thus, in new media, the database supports a variety of cultural forms that range from direct translation (that is, a database remains a database) to a form whose logic is the opposite of the logic of the material form itself – narrative. More precisely, a database can support narrative, but there is nothing in the logic of the form itself that would foster the generation of narrative. In the computer age, the database becomes the centre of the creative process. According to Manovich (2001: 227): ‘The new media object consists

of one or more interfaces to a database of multimedia material.

Does the preeminence of the database form represent a break with the past so monumental that the new media will completely replace narrative with database? As Manovich (2001: 229) argues: ‘New media does not radically break with the past; rather, it distributes weight differently between the categories that hold culture together, foregrounding what was in the background, and vice versa.’ Radical breaks do not generally involve complete change, but a restructuration.

CHAPTER III

CLOSING

A.      CONCLUSION

Ø  in relation to the English curriculum, computer-based activities can be used not only to help develop speaking and listening but also to encourage children to jointly make sense of texts and learn to use new registers and genres. A pair or group of children who are ‘asked’ by a computer to discuss a text, or provide a solution to a problem, can take as long as they like to share their thoughts and decide on their response. Because the computer is a machine, it will wait for the children’s response until they are ready to provide it. The computer can also be used to organize the process of joint activity more effectively than a conventional worksheet because software can require the children to provide a response before being allowed to continue, remind them of relevant information and provide feedback on their responses. Learners can be offered optional interactive routes through a narrative or information text. Used in combination with the support and guidance of a teacher, ICT can ‘scaffold’ children’s investigation of a text or problem while allowing them control over the pace of their activity. The powerful combination of computer technology and teacher guidance, can thus provide unique opportunities for the development of children’s spoken and written language capabilities.

Ø  By considering the notion of e-learning as enhancement. In considering how ICT can extend existing classroom strategies in English, we have gone some way in exploring how ICT can indeed develop and augment teaching and learning in English. But we hope that we have also been able to demonstrate that the existence of ICT makes new demands on reading through e-text and how, in turn and through provisionality, those new demands lead to a more profound understanding of how text works.

Ø  In this chapter we  have tried to think through the ways in which we might

talk about technology in English. there are some aspects of these technologies that are, I believe, at odds with the best aims of English. As well as being an amazing worldwide network of communication and democratic self-expression, the  Internet is also a bottomless source of misinformation, and of ugly shoddy material: access to the Internet can as easily reduce the quality of learning in a classroom as expand it. We have to engage with that, because the Internet is a major and insistent part of our lives. As a global medium of communication, I think that it belongs fairly and squarely within the scope of English, but it is not at all evident that we yet understand enough about how to deal with that fact. Meanwhile, the monster grows and grows, and eats up more and more time: time that might better be spent reading a book.

Ø  Just because technology is uniquely able to achieve some important aspects of English, it certainly does not mean that it is good for all aspects. It is unforgivable to waste the power of technology when it can do real good, but we need suffer no qualms about leaving it in its box the rest of the time. adults provide their students, through modelling and specific instruction, ways of taking from books, which seem natural in school and in numerous other social and institutional settings. These mainstream ways persist in formal education systems designed to prepare students for participation in settings involving book literacy. But book literacy, with its deep attachment to narrative as a hallowed cultural form, is now just one of the many literacies that students require to participate effectively in post-school settings. In particular, as this chapter has argued, students need opportunities in their classrooms to learn how to take meaning not just from the most familiar cultural forms but also from other, increasingly significant ones, such as the computerized database. If the modern age provided people with robust narratives and modest amounts of information, today in the computer age we have too much information and too few narratives that can make sense of it all. Whether we like it or not, information access has become a central activity of the computer age. Information access is no longer just integral to the world of work, it is also a key category of culture. As such, it demands that we deal with it theoretically, pedagogically and aesthetically.

B.                SUGGESTION

So this paper that have arranged by our group. We hope this paper can be usefull and can received well by other. But as an ordinary human who did not escape the short comings, we also expect criticism and suggestions which help to repair the mistake of our paper and the last thank you so much.

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